Cognitive Psychology

Psychometrics is a field of study within psychology concerned with the theory and technique of measurement.

Elizabeth F. Loftus (born 1944) is an American psychologist who is best known in relation to the misinformation effect, false memory and criticism of recovered memory therapies.

Retrieval of true memories was associated with greater reactivation of sensory-specific cortices, for example, the occipital cortex for vision.

was an Israeli-American psychologist best known for his work on the psychology of judgment and decision-making as well as behavioral economics

was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory

is an American cognitive psychologist, researcher, and educator

was an English cognitive psychologist

Cognitive psychology

Around 1930-s, Frederic Bartlett’s experiments in cognitive psychology highlighted the (re-)constructive nature of memory’s recall.

ACT has been called a "commonly used treatment with empirical support" within the APA-recognized specialty of behavioral and cognitive psychology.

Unconscious thought theory (UTT) posits that the unconscious mind is capable of performing tasks outside of one's awareness, and that unconscious thought (UT) is better at solving complex tasks, where many variables are considered, than conscious thought (CT), but is outperformed by conscious thought in tasks with fewer variables.

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model (also known as the multi-store model or modal model) is a model of memory proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin.

Richard Martin Shiffrin (born March 13, 1942) is an American psychologist, professor of cognitive science in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences at Indiana University, Bloomington.

Connectionism is an approach to the study of human mental processes and cognition that utilizes mathematical models known as connectionist networks or artificial neural networks.

The Semmelweis reflex or "Semmelweis effect" is a metaphor for the reflex-like tendency to reject new evidence or new knowledge because it contradicts established norms, beliefs, or paradigms.

Intentionality bias, which is known as intention bias for short, is a bias that makes people believe that all human behavior is intentional and that unconscious and/or accidental behavior is less likely behavior.

Reactive devaluation is a cognitive bias that occurs when a proposal is devalued if it appears to originate from an antagonist.

The well travelled road effect is a cognitive bias, coined by Jeffrey Popova-Clark in 2010, in which travellers will estimate the time taken to traverse routes differently depending on their familiarity with the route.

Repetition blindness (RB) is a phenomenon observed in rapid serial visual presentation.

Leveling and sharpening are two functions that are automatic and exist within memory.

The autokinetic effect (also referred to as autokinesis and the autokinetic illusion) is a phenomenon of visual perception in which a stationary, small point of light in an otherwise dark or featureless environment appears to move.

The uncanny valley effect is a hypothesized psychological and aesthetic relation between an object's degree of resemblance to a human being and the emotional response to the object.

The interference theory is a theory regarding human memory.

Mind-wandering is broadly defined as thoughts that are task-unrelated and stimulus-independent.

Prototype theory is a theory of categorization in cognitive science, particularly in psychology and cognitive linguistics, in which there is a graded degree of belonging to a conceptual category, and some members are more central than others.

The cognitive tradeoff hypothesis argues that in the cognitive evolution of humans, there was an evolutionary tradeoff between short-term working memory and complex language skills.

Chronostasis (from Greek χρόνος, chrónos, 'time' and στάσις, stásis, 'standing') is a type of temporal illusion in which the first impression following the introduction of a new event or task-demand to the brain can appear to be extended in time.

The Simon effect is the difference in accuracy or reaction time between trials in which stimulus and response are on the same side and trials in which they are on opposite sides, with responses being generally slower and less accurate when the stimulus and response are on opposite sides.

The Tetris effect occurs when someone dedicates substantial time, effort, and concentration to an activity and thereby alters their thoughts, dreams, and other experiences not directly linked to said activity.

The Thatcher effect, or Thatcher illusion, is a phenomenon in which changes to facial features are difficult to detect when a face is upside-down, even though the same changes are obvious in an upright face.

The kappa effect or perceptual time dilation is a temporal perceptual illusion that can arise when observers judge the elapsed time between sensory stimuli applied sequentially at different locations.

The Mandelbaum effect is the tendency for the eye to involuntarily shift its focus to a nearer distance, usually about one meter away, in conditions of poor visibility.

The tau effect is a spatial perceptual illusion that arises when observers judge the distance between consecutive stimuli in a stimulus sequence.

Illusory conjunctions are psychological effects in which participants combine features of two objects into one object.

Tunnel vision is a collection of common heuristics and logical fallacies that lead individuals to focus on cues that are consistent with their opinion and filter out cues that are inconsistent with their viewpoint.

Attentional blink (AB) is a psychological effect where people struggle to notice a second visual target in a rapid sequence if it appears 200 to 500 milliseconds after the first and is followed by distractions.

Change deafness is a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when, under certain circumstances, a physical change in an auditory stimulus goes unnoticed by the listener.

In decision making and psychology, decision fatigue refers to the deteriorating quality of decisions made by an individual after a long session of decision making.

Affective forecasting, also known as hedonic forecasting or the hedonic forecasting mechanism, is the prediction of one's affect (emotional state) in the future.

The Moon illusion is the optical illusion of the Moon appearing larger near the horizon than it does higher up in the sky.

The wagon-wheel effect (alternatively called stagecoach-wheel effect) is an optical illusion in which a spoked wheel appears to rotate differently from its true rotation.

Troxler's fading, also called Troxler fading or the Troxler effect, is an optical illusion affecting visual perception.

Motion Induced Blindness (MIB), also known as Bonneh's illusion, is a visual illusion in which a large, continuously moving pattern erases from perception some small, continuously presented, stationary dots when one looks steadily at the center of the display.

The Bezold effect is an optical illusion, named after a German professor of meteorology Wilhelm von Bezold (1837-1907), who discovered that a color may appear different depending on its relation to adjacent colors.

In visual perception, the kinetic depth effect is the phenomenon whereby the three-dimensional structural form of an object can be perceived when the object is moving.

The numerosity adaptation effect is a perceptual phenomenon in numerical cognition which demonstrates non-symbolic numerical intuition and exemplifies how numerical percepts can impose themselves upon the human brain automatically.

The Venus effect is a phenomenon in the psychology of perception, named after various paintings of Venus gazing into a mirror, such as Diego Velázquez's Rokeby Venus, Titian's Venus with a Mirror, and Veronese's Venus with a Mirror.

In psychology, the prevalence effect is the phenomenon that one is more likely to miss (or fail to detect) a target with a low prevalence (or frequency) than a target with a high prevalence or frequency.

The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve measures the decline of memory retention across time, showing how information is lost when there is no attempt to retain it.

The Purkinje effect or Purkinje phenomenon, sometimes called the Purkinje shift (often pronounced ), is the tendency for the peak luminance sensitivity of the eye to shift toward the blue end of the color spectrum at low illumination levels as part of dark adaptation.

An Ames room is a distorted room that creates an optical illusion.

The checker shadow illusion is an optical illusion published by Edward H. Adelson, professor of vision science at MIT, in 1995.

An illusory contour or subjective contour is a visual illusion that evokes the perception of an edge without a luminance or color change across that edge.

The Necker cube is an optical illusion that was first published as a rhomboid in 1832 by Swiss crystallographer Louis Albert Necker.

The Rubin vase (sometimes known as Rubin's vase, the Rubin face or the figure-ground vase) is a famous example of ambiguous or bi-stable (i.e., reversing) two-dimensional forms developed around 1915 by the Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin.

The Poggendorff illusion is a geometrical-optical illusion that involves the misperception of the position of one segment of a transverse line that has been interrupted by the contour of an intervening structure.

The Zöllner illusion is an optical illusion named after its discoverer, German astrophysicist Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner.

The Hering illusion is one of the geometrical-optical illusions and was discovered by the German physiologist Ewald Hering in 1861.

The Jastrow illusion is an optical illusion attributed to the Polish-American psychologist Joseph Jastrow.

The café wall illusion (also known as the Münsterberg illusion or the kindergarten illusion) is a geometrical-optical illusion in which the parallel straight dividing lines between staggered rows with alternating dark and light rectangles (such as bricks or tiles) appear to be sloped, not parallel as they really are.

The Fraser spiral illusion is an optical illusion that was first described by the British psychologist Sir James Fraser (1863-1936) in 1908.

Mach bands is an optical illusion named after the physicist Ernst Mach.

The Cornsweet illusion, also known as the Craik-O'Brien-Cornsweet illusion or the Craik-Cornsweet illusion, is an optical illusion that was described in detail by Tom Cornsweet in the late 1960s.

Multistable perception (or bistable perception) is a perceptual phenomenon in which an observer experiences an unpredictable sequence of spontaneous subjective changes.

Chromostereopsis is a visual illusion whereby the impression of depth is conveyed in two-dimensional color images, usually of red-blue or red-green colors, but can also be perceived with red-grey or blue-grey images.

An autostereogram is a two-dimensional (2D) image that can create the optical illusion of a three-dimensional (3D) scene.

The Penrose triangle, also known as the Penrose tribar, the impossible tribar, or the impossible triangle, is a triangular impossible object, an optical illusion consisting of an object that can be depicted in a perspective drawing.

The Hollow-Face illusion (also known as Hollow-Mask illusion) is an optical illusion in which the perception of a concave mask of a face appears as a normal convex face.

The barberpole illusion is a visual illusion that reveals biases in the processing of visual motion in the human brain.

The lilac chaser is a visual illusion, also known as the Pac-Man illusion.

The term beta movement is used for the optical illusion of apparent motion in which the very short projection of one figure and a subsequent very short projection of a more or less similar figure in a neighbouring location are experienced as one figure moving.

The Chubb illusion is an optical illusion or error in visual perception in which the apparent contrast of an object varies substantially to most viewers depending on its relative contrast to the field on which it is displayed.

The Wundt illusion is a geometrical-optical illusion, a class of visual phenomena in which the perceived properties of simple lines or shapes differ from their true geometric properties.

The Ehrenstein illusion is an optical illusion of brightness or color perception.

In astronomical imaging and Earth imaging, the crater illusion, also known as the dome illusion or crater/dome illusion, is an optical illusion which causes impact craters and other depressions to appear raised as domes or mountains.

The Orbison illusion (or Orbison's illusion) is an optical illusion first described by American psychologist William Orbison (1912-1952) in 1939.

The leaning tower illusion is a visual illusion seen in a pair of identical images of the Leaning Tower of Pisa photographed from below.

The color phi phenomenon is the fact that, when apparent motion is induced between objects with different colors, the color of the apparently moving object abruptly changes midway along the path.

The Koffka ring is a geometric optical illusion discovered by the German psychologist Kurt Koffka.

The vertical-horizontal illusion is the tendency for observers to overestimate the length of a vertical line relative to a horizontal line of the same length.

The Oppel-Kundt illusion is a geometric optical illusion that occurs when comparing the sizes of filled (with some visual elements, distractors) and unfilled parts of the image (for most observers, the filled part seems larger).

Eidetic memory ( eye-DET-ik), also known as photographic memory and total recall, is the alleged ability to recall an image from memory with high precision-at least for a brief period of time-after seeing it only once and without using a mnemonic device.

Negative priming is an implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus.

The Asahi illusion (Japanese: asahi = morning sun) is an optical illusion that tricks the viewer into thinking a colour is much brighter than it truly is.

The Sander illusion or Sander's parallelogram is an optical illusion described by the German psychologist Friedrich Sander (1889-1971) in 1926.

The stepping feet illusion is a motion perception phenomenon involving two "buses," one blue and one yellow, moving horizontally across a "street" consisting of black and white stripes.

The Vista paradox, sometimes colloquially referred to as the Sydney Opera House illusion after a video from digital content creator Vsauce, is a natural optical illusion where an object seen through an aperture (such as a window) appears to shrink in apparent size as the observer approaches the aperture.

The law of continuity is a heuristic principle introduced by Gottfried Leibniz based on earlier work by Nicholas of Cusa and Johannes Kepler.

The leans is the most common type of spatial disorientation for aviators.

The simulation heuristic is a psychological heuristic, or simplified mental strategy, according to which people determine the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to picture the event mentally.

Subjective constancy or perceptual constancy is the perception of an object or quality as constant even though our sensation of the object changes.

Shepard tables (also known as the Shepard tabletop illusion) are an optical illusion first published in 1990 as "Turning the Tables," by Stanford psychologist Roger N. Shepard in his book Mind Sights, a collection of illusions that he had created.

An impossible trident, also known as an impossible fork, blivet, poiuyt, or devil's tuning fork, is a drawing of an impossible object (undecipherable figure), a kind of an optical illusion.

A Shepard tone, named after Roger Shepard, is a sound consisting of a superposition of sine waves separated by octaves.

The octave illusion is an auditory illusion discovered by Diana Deutsch in 1973.

The speech-to-song illusion is an auditory illusion discovered by Diana Deutsch in 1995.

The Franssen effect is an auditory illusion where the listener incorrectly localizes a sound.

Aphantasia ( AY-fan-TAY-zhə, AF-an-TAY-zhə) is the inability to voluntarily visualize mental images.

Hyperphantasia is the condition of having extremely vivid mental imagery.

Palinopsia (from Greek palin 'again' and opsia 'seeing') is the persistent recurrence of a visual image after the stimulus has been removed.

Spatial disorientation is the inability to determine position or relative motion, commonly occurring during periods of challenging visibility, since vision is the dominant sense for orientation.

In the science of visual perception, stereopsis is the sensation that objects in space extend into depth, and that objects have different distances from each other.

The Ames trapezoid or Ames window is an image on, for example, a flat piece of cardboard that seems to be a rectangular window but is, in fact, a trapezoid.

In human visual perception, the visual angle, denoted θ, subtended by a viewed object sometimes looks larger or smaller than its actual value.

In human perception, contingent aftereffects are illusory percepts that are apparent on a test stimulus after exposure to an induction stimulus for an extended period.

The glissando illusion is an auditory illusion, created when a sound with a fixed pitch, such as a synthesized oboe tone, is played together with a sine wave gliding up and down in pitch, and they are both switched back and forth between stereo loudspeakers.

The term pseudoneglect refers to the natural tendency of shifting spatial attention to the left.

Inhibition of return (IOR) refers to an orientation mechanism that briefly enhances (for approximately 100-300 milliseconds (ms)) the speed and accuracy with which an object is detected after the object is attended, but then impairs detection speed and accuracy (for approximately 500-3000 milliseconds).

Continuous partial attention is the behavior of dividing one's attention, scanning and optimizing opportunities in an effort to not miss anything that is going on, coined in 1998 by Linda Stone.

Persistence of vision or visual persistence is the optical illusion that occurs when the visual perception of an object continues for some time after the rays of light proceeding from it have ceased to enter the eye.

Restraint bias is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control impulsive behavior.

The subadditivity effect is the tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts.

The Pollyanna principle (also called Pollyannaism or positivity bias) is the tendency for people to remember pleasant items more accurately than unpleasant ones.

The recency illusion is the belief or impression, on the part of someone who has only recently become aware of a long-established phenomenon, that the phenomenon itself must be of recent origin.

In decision theory and economics, ambiguity aversion (also known as uncertainty aversion) is a preference for known risks over unknown risks.

The irrelevant speech effect (ISE) or irrelevant sound effect is the degradation of serial recall of a list when sounds, especially speech sounds, are presented.

Repetition priming refers to improvements in a behavioural response when stimuli are repeatedly presented.

The Fechner color effect is an illusion of color seen when looking at certain rapidly changing or moving black-and-white patterns.

The peripheral drift illusion (PDI) refers to a motion illusion generated by the presentation of a sawtooth luminance grating in the visual periphery.

The irradiation illusion is an illusion of visual perception in which a light area of the visual field looks larger than an otherwise identical dark area.

White's illusion is a brightness illusion in which certain stripes of a black-and-white grating are replaced by gray rectangles of the same color, luminance, and opacity.

The Ternus illusion or Ternus effect is an illusion related to human visual perception involving apparent motion.

The cutaneous rabbit illusion (also known as cutaneous saltation and sometimes the cutaneous rabbit effect or CRE) is a tactile illusion evoked by tapping two or more separate regions of the skin in rapid succession.

Convergence micropsia is a type of micropsia characterized by the reduction in apparent size of objects viewed when the eyes are more converged than they need to be for the distance of the object from the eyes.

In psychology, a set is a group of expectations that shape experience by making people especially sensitive to specific kinds of information.

Neural adaptation or sensory adaptation is a gradual decrease over time in the responsiveness of the sensory system to a constant stimulus.

In psychology, visual capture is the dominance of vision over other sense modalities in creating a percept.

Ambiguous images or reversible figures are visual forms that create ambiguity by exploiting graphical similarities and other properties of visual system interpretation between two or more distinct image forms.

In psychology, the human mind is considered to be a cognitive miser due to the tendency of humans to think and solve problems in simpler and less effortful ways rather than in more sophisticated and effortful ways, regardless of intelligence.

In decision theory, regret aversion (or anticipated regret) describes how the human emotional response of regret can influence decision-making under uncertainty.

In psychology, contextual cueing refers to a form of visual search facilitation which describe targets appearing in repeated configurations are detected more quickly.

The Ranschburg effect, sometimes referred to as Ranschburg inhibition, is a psychological theory which refers to the substandard recall of repeated items, or listed items, in a short sequence.

The Penrose stairs or Penrose steps, also dubbed the impossible staircase, is an impossible object created by Oscar Reutersvärd in 1937 and later independently discovered and made popular by Lionel Penrose and his son Roger Penrose.

The method of loci is a mnemonic technique that uses visual imagination and spatial memory to organize and recall information.

Alexander Romanovich Luria (; Russian: Алекса́ндр Рома́нович Лу́рия, IPA: [ˈlurʲɪjə]; 16 July 1902 - 14 August 1977) was a Soviet neuropsychologist, often credited as the father of modern neuropsychology.

Amos Nathan Tversky (Hebrew: עמוס טברסקי; March 16, 1937 - June 2, 1996) was an Israeli cognitive and mathematical psychologist and a key figure in the discovery of systematic human cognitive bias and handling of risk.

George Armitage Miller (February 3, 1920 - July 22, 2012) was an American psychologist who was one of the founders of cognitive psychology, and more broadly, of cognitive science.

In psychology and cognitive science, a schema (pl.: schemata or schemas) describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them.

John A. Bargh (; born 1955) is an American social psychologist working at Yale University as the Susan Nolen-Hoeksema Professor Emeritus of Psychology and of Cognitive Science and Management.

Nudge theory is a concept in behavioral economics, decision making, behavioral policy, social psychology, consumer behavior, and related behavioral sciences that proposes adaptive designs of the decision environment (choice architecture) as ways to influence the behavior and decision-making of groups or individuals.

In psychology, the Stroop effect is the delay in reaction time between neutral and incongruent stimuli.

Survivorship bias or survivor bias is a statistical error which results from concentrating on entities that passed a selection process over those that did not.

Apophenia () is the tendency to perceive meaningful connections between unrelated things.

The frequency illusion, also known as the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon, is a cognitive bias in which a person notices a specific concept, word, or product more frequently after recently becoming aware of it.

The Barnum effect, also called the Forer effect or, less commonly, the Barnum-Forer effect, is a common psychological phenomenon whereby individuals give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically to them, yet which are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a broad range of people.

In psychology, the Zeigarnik effect (named after Lithuanian-Soviet psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik) postulates that people remember unfinished or interrupted tasks better than completed tasks.

The curse of knowledge, also called the curse of expertise or expert's curse, is a cognitive bias that occurs when a person who has specialized knowledge assumes that others share in that knowledge.

The just-world fallacy, or just-world hypothesis, is the cognitive bias that assumes that "people get what they deserve" - that actions will necessarily have morally fair and fitting consequences for the actor.

The illusory truth effect, also known as the illusion of truth effect, validity effect, truth effect, or the reiteration effect, is the tendency to believe false information to be correct after repeated exposure.

The bandwagon effect is a psychological phenomenon where people adopt certain behaviors, styles, or attitudes simply because others are doing so.

The IKEA effect is a cognitive bias in which consumers place a disproportionately high value on products they partially created.

Negativity bias, also known as the negativity effect, is a cognitive bias that human cognition is relatively more affected by a negative affect than an equally potent positive affect.

Not invented here (NIH) is the tendency to avoid using or buying products, research, standards, or knowledge from external origins.

The spotlight effect is the psychological phenomenon by which people tend to believe they are being noticed more than they really are.

The planning fallacy is a phenomenon in which predictions about how much time will be needed to complete a future task display an optimism bias and underestimate the time needed.

The overconfidence effect is a cognitive bias in which a person's subjective confidence in their judgments is reliably greater than the objective accuracy of those judgments, especially when confidence is relatively high.

Automation bias is the propensity for humans to favor suggestions from automated decision-making systems and to ignore contradictory information made without automation, even if it is correct.

A status quo bias or default bias is a cognitive bias which results from a preference for the maintenance of one's existing state of affairs.

The Google effect, also called digital amnesia, is the tendency to forget information that can be found readily online by using Internet search engines.

Rosy retrospection is a proposed psychological phenomenon of recalling the past more positively than it was actually experienced.

The ostrich effect, also known as the ostrich problem, was originally coined by Dan Galai and Orly Sade.

The bias blind spot is the cognitive bias of recognizing the impact of biases on the judgment of others, while failing to see the impact of biases on one's own judgment.

The illusion of control is the tendency for people to overestimate their ability to control events.

Normalcy bias, or normality bias, is a cognitive bias which leads people to disbelieve or minimize threat warnings.

The clustering illusion is the tendency to erroneously consider the inevitable "streaks" or "clusters" arising in small samples from random distributions to be non-random.

Declinism is the belief that a society or institution is tending towards decline.

The cheerleader effect, also known as the group attractiveness effect or the friend effect, is a proposed cognitive bias which causes people to perceive individuals as 1.5-2.0% more attractive in a group than when seen alone.

The illusion of transparency is a tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which their personal mental state is known by others.

The illusion of explanatory depth (IOED) is cognitive bias or an illusion where people tend to believe they understand a topic better than they actually do.

This concept is considered one of the social cognitive biases or collective cognitive biases.

The disposition effect is the tendency, or disposition, of investors to sell their winning positions too early and to hold their losing positions too long.

The end-of-history illusion is a psychological illusion in which individuals of all ages believe that they have experienced significant personal growth and changes in tastes up to the present moment, but will not substantially grow or mature in the future.

In economics, money illusion, or price illusion, is a cognitive bias where money is thought of in nominal, rather than real terms.

Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

A contrast effect is the enhancement or diminishment, relative to normal, of perception, cognition or related performance as a result of successive (immediately previous) or simultaneous exposure to a stimulus of lesser or greater value in the same dimension.

In psychology, illusory correlation is the phenomenon of perceiving a relationship between variables (typically people, events, or behaviors) even when no such relationship exists.

The identifiable victim effect is the tendency of individuals to offer greater aid when a specific, identifiable person ("victim") is observed under hardship, as compared to a large, vaguely defined group with the same need.

Hostile attribution bias, or hostile attribution of intent, is the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign.

The hungry judge effect is the observation that judges' verdicts are more lenient after a meal break.

The denomination effect is a form of cognitive bias relating to currency, suggesting people may be less likely to spend larger currency denominations than their equivalent value in smaller denominations.

The generation effect is a psychological phenomenon whereby information is better remembered if it is generated from one's own mind rather than simply read.

Attentional bias is the tendency for a person's perception to be affected by selective factors in their attention.

Michael Ross and Fiore Sicoly first identified this cognitive bias in their 1979 paper, "Egocentric Biases in Availability and Attribution".

The ambiguity effect is a cognitive tendency where decision making is affected by a lack of information, or "ambiguity".

Action bias is the psychological phenomenon where people tend to favor action over inaction, even when there is no indication that doing so would point towards a better result.

A hot-cold empathy gap is a cognitive bias in which people underestimate the influences of visceral drives and emotions on their own attitudes, preferences, and behaviors.

The fading affect bias, more commonly known as FAB, is a psychological phenomenon in which memories associated with negative emotions tend to be forgotten more quickly than those associated with positive emotions.

Belief bias is the tendency to judge the strength of arguments based on the plausibility of their conclusion rather than how strongly they justify that conclusion.

In the psychology of affective forecasting, the impact bias, a form of which is the durability bias, is the tendency for people to overestimate the length or the intensity of future emotional states.

Illusion of validity is a cognitive bias in which a person overestimates their ability to interpret and predict accurately the outcome when analyzing a set of data, in particular when the data analyzed show a very consistent pattern-that is, when the data "tells" a coherent story.

Insensitivity to sample size is a cognitive bias where people estimate the probability of obtaining a sample statistic without considering the sample size.

The illusion of asymmetric insight is a cognitive bias whereby people perceive their knowledge of others to surpass other people's knowledge of them.

Congruence bias is the tendency of people to over-rely on testing their initial hypothesis (the most congruent one) while neglecting to test alternative hypotheses.

Other cognitive biases that contribute to compassion fade include the identifiable victim effect (IVE), pseudo-inefficacy, and the prominence effect.

Distinction bias, a concept of decision theory, is the tendency to view two options as more distinctive when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.

The group attribution error refers to people's tendency to believe either

Cue-dependent forgetting, or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall information without memory cues.

Euphoric recall is a cognitive bias that describes the tendency of people to remember past experiences in a positive light, while overlooking negative experiences associated with some event(s).

Duration neglect is the psychological observation that people's judgments of the unpleasantness of painful experiences depend very little on the duration of those experiences.

Bizarreness effect is the proposed tendency of bizarre material to be better remembered than common material.

The defensive attribution hypothesis (or bias, theory, or simply defensive attribution) is a social psychological term where an observer attributes the causes for a misfortune to minimize their fear of being a victim or a cause in a similar situation.

The extrinsic incentives bias is an attributional bias according to which people attribute relatively more to "extrinsic incentives" (such as monetary reward) than to "intrinsic incentives" (such as learning a new skill) when weighing the motives of others rather than themselves.

Additive bias is a cognitive urge or tendency of human beings facing problems to add resources instead of taking or subtracting.

In social psychology, a stereotype is a generalized belief about a particular category of people.

The hot hand (also known as the hot hand phenomenon or hot hand fallacy) is the putative tendency for an athlete to have streaks of success higher than their average performance.

The peak-end rule is a psychological heuristic in which people judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its peak (i.e., its most intense point) and at its end, rather than based on the total sum or average of every moment of the experience.

Naïve realism provides a theoretical basis for several other cognitive biases, which are systematic errors when it comes to thinking and making decisions.

Information bias is a cognitive bias to seek information when it does not affect action.

The hard-easy effect is a cognitive bias that manifests itself as a tendency to overestimate the probability of one's success at a task perceived as hard, and to underestimate the likelihood of one's success at a task perceived as easy.

The aesthetic-usability effect describes a paradox that people perceive more aesthetic designs as much more intuitive than those considered to be less aesthetically pleasing.

Tip of the tongue (also known as TOT, or lethologica) is the phenomenon of failing to retrieve a word or term from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent.

In cognitive psychology and decision science, conservatism or conservatism bias is a bias which refers to the tendency to revise one's belief insufficiently when presented with new evidence.

Pareidolia () is the tendency for perception to impose a meaningful interpretation on a nebulous stimulus, usually visual, so that one detects an object, pattern, or meaning where there is none.

The law of the instrument, law of the hammer, Maslow's hammer, or golden hammer is a cognitive bias that involves an over-reliance on a familiar tool.

Risk compensation is a theory which suggests that people typically adjust their behavior in response to perceived levels of risk, becoming more careful where they sense greater risk and less careful if they feel more protected.

The picture superiority effect refers to the phenomenon in which pictures and images are more likely to be remembered than words.

Selective perception has roots in cognitive psychology, where it is studied as a fundamental part of how individuals filter and process information based on biases, expectations, and past experiences.

The outcome bias is an error made in evaluating the quality of a decision when the outcome of that decision is already known.

Omission bias is the moral judgement in which people prefer omission (inaction) over commission (action), and tend to believe harm as a result of commission more negatively than harm as a result of omission.

The reminiscence bump is the tendency for adults over forty to have increased or enhanced recollection for events that occurred during their adolescence and early adulthood.

Plant blindness, plant awareness disparity (PAD) or lack of plant awareness is a proposed form of cognitive bias which, in its broadest meaning, is a human tendency to ignore plant species.

Subjective validation, sometimes called personal validation effect, is a cognitive bias by which people will consider a statement or another piece of information to be correct if it has any personal meaning or significance to them.

Zero-risk bias is a tendency to prefer the complete elimination of risk in a sub-part over alternatives with greater overall risk reduction.

The self-reference effect is a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on whether they are implicated in the information.

Present bias is the tendency to settle for a smaller present reward rather than wait for a larger future reward, in a trade-off situation.

Scope neglect or scope insensitivity is a cognitive bias that occurs when the valuation of a problem is not valued with a multiplicative relationship to its size.

Turkey illusion is a cognitive bias describing the surprise resulting from a break in a trend, if one does not know the causes or the framework conditions for this trend.

The less-is-better effect is a cognitive bias that causes people to favor a lesser option when it is presented separately, but to prefer the better option when both are presented together.

The neglect of probability, a type of cognitive bias, is the tendency to disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty and is one simple way in which people regularly violate the normative rules for decision making.

In cognitive psychology, the telescoping effect (or telescoping bias) is a phenomenon in which people underestimate the recency of recent events (backward telescoping), and overestimate the recency of distant events (forward telescoping).

The ultimate attribution error is an attribution error made when making in-group and out-group attributions, resulting in in-group favoritism.

Time-saving bias is a concept that describes people's tendency to misestimate the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) speed.

Surrogation is a psychological phenomenon found in business practices whereby a measure of a construct of interest evolves to replace that construct.

In prospect theory, the pseudocertainty effect is the tendency for people to perceive an outcome as certain while it is actually uncertain in multi-stage decision making.

The proportionality bias, also known as major event/major cause heuristic, is the tendency to assume that big events have big causes.

Outgroup favoritism is a social psychological construct intended to capture why some socially disadvantaged groups will express favorable attitudes (and even preferences) toward social, cultural, or ethnic groups other than their own.

Probability matching is a decision strategy in which predictions of class membership are proportional to the class base rates.

The physical attractiveness stereotype, commonly known as the "beautiful-is-good" stereotype, is the tendency to assume that physically attractive individuals, coinciding with social beauty standards, also possess other desirable personality traits, such as intelligence, social competence, and morality.

Recency bias is a cognitive bias that favors recent events over historic ones.

In scientific research and psychotherapy, the subject-expectancy effect, is a form of reactivity that occurs when a research subject expects a given result and therefore unconsciously affects the outcome, or reports the expected result.

A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that comes true at least in part as a result of a person's belief or expectation that the prediction would come true.

The Hawthorne effect is a type of behavioral reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.

The horn effect, closely related to the halo effect, is a form of cognitive bias that causes one's perception of another to be unduly influenced by a single negative trait.

The Golem effect is a psychological phenomenon in which lower expectations placed upon individuals, either by supervisors or the individual themselves, lead to poorer performance by the individual.

The overjustification effect is a phenomenon in psychology in which providing expected external incentive, such as money or prizes, for an already intrinsically rewarding activity can reduce a person's intrinsic motivation to perform that activity.

Denial, in colloquial English usage, has at least three meanings:

The American Psychological Association Dictionary of Psychology defines projection as follows:[T]he process by which one attributes one's own individual positive or negative characteristics, affects, and impulses to another person or group... often a defense mechanism in which unpleasant or unacceptable impulses, stressors, ideas, affects, or responsibilities are attributed to others.

Rationalization is a defense mechanism (ego defense) in which apparent logical reasons are given to justify behavior that is motivated by unconscious instinctual impulses.

Gestalt psychology, gestaltism, or configurationism is a school of psychology, and a theory of perception, that emphasizes psychologically processing entire patterns (and "configurations"), not merely individual components of situations or events separately.

Thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, and irrationality.

Fear of missing out (FOMO) is the feeling of apprehension that one is either not in the know about or missing out on information, events, experiences, or life decisions that could make one's life better.

Locus of control is the degree to which people believe that they, as opposed to external forces (beyond their influence), have control over the outcome of events in their lives.

Nominative determinism is the hypothesis that people tend to gravitate toward areas of work or interest that fit their names.

Magical thinking or superstitious thinking is the belief that unrelated events are causally connected despite the absence of any plausible causal link between them, particularly as a result of supernatural effects.

In the social sciences, framing is a set of concepts and theoretical perspectives on how individuals, groups, and societies organize, perceive, and communicate about reality.

The Texas sharpshooter fallacy is the statistical fallacy of inferring meaning from what is essentially a random distribution of data points.

A cognitive distortion is a thought that causes a person to perceive reality inaccurately due to being exaggerated or irrational.

Wishful thinking is the formation of beliefs based on what might be pleasing to imagine, rather than on evidence, rationality, or reality.

Self-deception or self-delusion is a process of denying or rationalizing away the relevance, significance, or importance of opposing evidence and logical argument.

Motivated reasoning is a mental process through which individuals access, construct, and evaluate their beliefs in response to new information or experiences where their biases cause them to arrive at desired conclusions.

Heuristics (from Ancient Greek εὑρίσκω (heurískō) 'to find, discover') is the process by which humans use mental shortcuts to arrive at decisions.

Psychological pricing (also price ending or charm pricing) is a pricing and marketing strategy based on the theory that certain prices have a psychological impact.

Confabulation is a memory error consisting of the production of fabricated, distorted, or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the world.

In social psychology, the pratfall effect is the tendency for a person's likability to change after making a mistake depending on perceived competence: highly competent individuals tend to become more likable, while average individuals may become less likable for the same error.

In psychology, a first impression is the event when one person first encounters another person and forms a mental image of that person.

The Woozle effect, also known as evidence by citation, occurs when a source is widely cited for a claim that the source does not adequately support, giving said claim undeserved credibility.

Depressive realism is the hypothesis developed by Lauren Alloy and Lyn Yvonne Abramson that depressed individuals make more realistic inferences than non-depressed individuals.

In psychology, an attribution bias or attributional errors is a cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others' behaviors.

In social psychology, the boomerang effect, also known as "reactance", refers to the unintended consequences of an attempt to persuade resulting in the adoption of an opposing position instead.

An information cascade or informational cascade is a phenomenon described in behavioral economics and network theory in which a number of people make the same decision in a sequential fashion.

The region-beta paradox is the phenomenon that people can sometimes recover more quickly from more distressing experiences than from less distressing ones.

The "lost in the mall" technique or experiment is a memory implantation technique used to demonstrate that confabulations about events that never took place - such as having been lost in a shopping mall as a child - can be created through suggestions made to experimental subjects that their older relative was present at the time.

The out-group homogeneity effect is the perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members, i.e. "they are alike; we are diverse".

Cultural bias is the tendency of individuals to interpret and judge others' experiences through the lens of one's own cultural background.

The ludic fallacy, proposed by Nassim Nicholas Taleb in his book The Black Swan (2007), is "the misuse of games to model real-life situations".

Actor-observer asymmetry (also actor-observer bias or actor-observer difference) is a bias one exhibits when forming attributions about the behavior of others or themselves.

Jumping to conclusions is a form of cognitive distortion.

Cognitive resource theory (CRT) is a leadership theory of industrial and organisational psychology developed by Fred Fiedler and Joe Garcia in 1987 as a reconceptualisation of the Fiedler contingency model.

The phrase pretty privilege is a tendency for people who are viewed as more attractive or "pretty" to receive more opportunities, benefits, attention, or other perks than their less attractive counterparts.

Minimisation or minimization is an action where an individual intentionally downplays a situation or a thing.

Inequity aversion (IA) is the preference for fairness and resistance to incidental inequalities.

Déformation professionnelle (French: [defɔʁmasjɔ̃ pʁɔfɛsjɔnɛl], 'professional deformation' or 'job conditioning') is a tendency to look at things from the point of view of one's own profession or special expertise rather than from a broader or humane perspective.

Intellectual humility is a metacognitive process characterized by recognizing the limits of one's knowledge and acknowledging one's fallibility.

Several cognitive biases can consequently hamper proper preparation for future risks.

Motivated forgetting is a theorized psychological behavior in which people may forget unwanted memories, either consciously or unconsciously.

Emotional reasoning is a cognitive process by which an individual concludes that their emotional reaction proves something is true, despite contrary empirical evidence.

The name-letter effect is the tendency of people to prefer the letters in their name over other letters in the alphabet.

A self-defeating prophecy (self-destroying or self-denying in some sources) is the complementary opposite of a self-fulfilling prophecy; a prediction that prevents what it predicts from happening.

Wikipedia article 'Favourite-longshot bias' is filed under Category:Cognitive biases.

The focusing illusion is a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the impact of a specific factor on their overall happiness.

In psychology, the transposed letter effect is a phenomenon in which letters within a word are switched.

Cognitive inertia is the tendency - for a particular orientation in an individual's thinking about a matter, belief, or strategy - to resist change.

Positive illusions are unrealistically favorable attitudes that people have towards themselves or to people that are close to them.

The birthday-number effect is the subconscious tendency of people to prefer the numbers in the date of their birthday over other numbers.

Data dredging, also known as data snooping or p-hacking, is the misuse of data analysis to find patterns in data that can be presented as statistically significant, thus dramatically increasing and understating the risk of false positives.

In epidemiological research, recall bias is a systematic error caused by differences in the accuracy or completeness of the recollections retrieved ("recalled") by study participants regarding events or experiences from the past.

Memory conformity, also known as social contagion of memory, is the phenomenon where memories or information reported by others influences an individual and is incorporated into the individual's memory.

The regression (or regressive) fallacy is an informal fallacy.

The watching-eye effect says that people behave more altruistically and exhibit less antisocial behavior in the presence of images that depict eyes, because these images insinuate that they are being watched.

Imagination inflation is a type of memory distortion that occurs when imagining an event that never happened increases confidence in the memory of the event.

In sociology, a deviancy amplification spiral occurs in societies or social environments when certain attempts to eradicate slightly deviant or criminal behavior by labeling and shaming it in a way that ultimately serves to further marginalize the people viewed as deviant, and cause them to engage in further deviance, thus intensifying social disapproval and perpetuating the cycle.

Selective amnesia is a type of amnesia in which the sufferer loses only certain parts of their memory.

Affinity bias, also known as the similarity bias, similar-to-me effect, and the mini-me syndrome, refers to an implicit cognitive bias where people are favorably biased toward others like themselves.

The certainty effect is the psychological effect resulting from the reduction of probability from certain to probable (Tversky & Kahneman 1986).

Othello error occurs when a suspicious observer discounts cues of truthfulness.

In social psychology, social projection is the psychological process through which an individual expects behaviors or attitudes of others to be similar to their own.

The bias intersects with other cognitive biases rooted in a preference for the familiar.

The blue-seven phenomenon is a social phenomenon in which a purported statistical majority of people in the US choose the color blue and number seven when asked to randomly select a color and a single digit number.

Self-referential encoding is a method of organizing information in one's memory in which one interprets incoming information in relation to oneself, using one's self-concept as a background.

The term shooting bias, also known as "shooter bias", is a proposed form of implicit racial bias which refers to the apparent tendency among the police to shoot black civilians more often than white civilians, even when they are unarmed.

Self-persuasion is used to explain one aspect of social influence.

Narrative bias, also known as narrative information bias, is a cognitive bias that skews perceptions towards information contained in individual narratives, as compared to complex data or other forms of information.

Denominator neglect, also known as denominator neglect bias or the ratio bias, is a cognitive bias in which individuals focus on the numerator of a ratio while neglecting the denominator.

The Wason verbal illusion is a cognitive illusion in psycholinguistics where certain grammatically complex sentences are misinterpreted to mean the opposite of their literal meaning.

Hypocognition, in cognitive linguistics, means missing and being unable to communicate cognitive and linguistic representations because there are no words for particular concepts.

In consumer behaviour studies, the Blissful Ignorance Effect is when people who have good information about a product are not expected to be as happy with the product as people who have less information about it.

Accentuation effect occurs when something (be it a person, place or thing) is placed into a category.

In psychology, the positivity offset is a phenomenon where people tend to interpret neutral situations as mildly positive, and rate their lives as good, most of the time.

Adaptive bias is the idea that the human brain has evolved to reason adaptively, rather than truthfully or even rationally, and that cognitive bias may have evolved as a mechanism to reduce the overall cost of cognitive errors as opposed to merely reducing the number of cognitive errors, when faced with making a decision under conditions of uncertainty.

Interpretive bias or interpretation bias is an information-processing bias, the tendency to inappropriately analyze ambiguous stimuli, scenarios and events.

The end-of-the-day betting effect is a cognitive bias reflected in the tendency for bettors to take gambles with higher risk and higher reward at the end of their betting session to try to make up for losses.

Social perception (or interpersonal perception) is the study of how people form impressions of and make inferences about other people as sovereign personalities.

Debiasing is the reduction of bias, particularly with respect to judgment and decision making.

Social amnesia, or collective amnesia, is the act of collectively forgetting things or failing to perform due to shared forgetfulness.

Implicit cognition refers to cognitive processes that occur outside conscious awareness or conscious control.

Cognitive biases have been shown in a wide range of species including rats, dogs, rhesus macaques, sheep, chicks, starlings and honeybees.

In social psychology, a motivated tactician is someone who shifts between quick-and-dirty cognitively economical tactics and more thoughtful, thorough strategies when processing information, depending on the type and degree of motivation.

Mnemic neglect is a term used in social psychology to describe a pattern of selective forgetting in which certain autobiographical memories tend to be recalled more easily if they are consistent with positive self-concept.

Neurorealism (also referred to as neuro-realism or neuroessentialism) is a concept within popular science where individuals ascribe more meaning to psychological phenomena merely because it is backed up by brain research, including brain imaging methods.

Perceptual defense is the act of conceiving and reinforcing one's own biases, perceptions and judgments, and preventing oneself from assimilating other forms of opinions from others.

In psychology, the face superiority effect refers to the holistic way in which the human mind perceives and encodes human faces into memory.

The fan effect is a psychological phenomenon under the branch of cognitive psychology where recognition times or error rate for a particular concept increases as more information about the concept is acquired.

In psychology and behavioral economics, the endowment effect, also known as divestiture aversion, is the finding that people are more likely to retain an object they own than acquire that same object when they do not own it.

In cognitive psychology, the word superiority effect (WSE) refers to the phenomenon that people have better recognition of letters presented within words as compared to isolated letters and to letters presented within nonword (orthographically illegal, unpronounceable letter array) strings.

Gender schema theory is a cognitive theory to explain how individuals become gendered in society, and how sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture.

The Kuleshov effect (Russian: Эффект Кулешова) is a film editing (montage) effect demonstrated by Russian filmmaker Lev Kuleshov in the 1910s and 1920s.

In cognitive psychology, the missing letter effect refers to the finding that, when people are asked to consciously detect target letters while reading text, they miss more letters in frequent function words (e.g. the letter "h" in "the") than in less frequent, content words.

The satisfaction paradox is an empirical phenomenon in quality-of-life research, describing how objectively negative life circumstances have relatively little impact on an individual's subjective well-being.

Self-propaganda is the way in which people convince themselves of something regardless of the evidence against it.

In psychology and cognitive science, cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm and/or rationality in judgment.

The psychology of climate change denial is the study of why people deny climate change, despite the scientific consensus on climate change.

Cognitive bias mitigation is the prevention and reduction of the negative effects of cognitive biases - unconscious, automatic influences on human judgment and decision making that reliably produce reasoning errors.

Verbal overshadowing is a phenomenon where giving a verbal description of sensory input impairs formation of memories of that input.

Precision bias is a form of cognitive bias in which an evaluator of information commits a logical fallacy as the result of confusing accuracy and precision.

The observational interpretation fallacy is the cognitive bias where associations identified in observational studies are misinterpreted as causal relationships.

Wikipedia article 'Selective omission' is filed under Category:Memory biases.

Political bias refers to the bias or manipulation of information to favor a particular political position, party, or candidate.

Childhood amnesia, also called infantile amnesia, is the inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories (memories of situations or events) before the age of three to four years.

The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm is a procedure in cognitive psychology used to study false memory in humans.

Steven Arthur Pinker (born September 18, 1954) is a Canadian cognitive psychologist, psycholinguist, popular science author, and public intellectual.

In psychology, a false memory is a phenomenon in which someone recalls something that did not actually happen or recalls it differently from the way it actually happened.

Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT) is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS, also known as a "cue") that has been associated with rewarding or aversive stimuli via classical conditioning alters motivational salience and operant behavior.

Visual search is a type of perceptual task requiring attention that typically involves an active scan of the visual environment for a particular object or feature (the target) among other objects or features (the distractors).

Subitizing is the rapid, accurate, and effortless ability to perceive small quantities of items in a set, typically when there are four or fewer items, without relying on linguistic or arithmetic processes.

The Pygmalion effect is a psychological phenomenon in which high expectations lead to improved performance in a given area.

Event perception is a cognitive process responsible for partitioning the continuous flow of conscious experience into discrete, meaningful units called events.

Amina Memon (born 1961) is a social and cognitive psychologist, academic, and author.

These errors, also referred to as "slips" in cognitive psychology, are often caused by lapses in attention, habitual behavior, or environmental factors, such as poorly designed interfaces or similar objects.

In cognitive psychology, fast mapping is the term used for the hypothesized mental process whereby a new concept is learned (or a new hypothesis formed) based only on minimal exposure to a given unit of information (e.

Reuven Feuerstein (Hebrew: ראובן פוירשטיין; August 21, 1921, April 29, 2014) was a Romanian-born Israeli clinical, developmental, and cognitive psychologist, known for his theory of intelligence.

In cognitive psychology, the Eriksen flanker task is a set of response inhibition tests used to assess the ability to suppress responses that are inappropriate in a particular context.

In cognitive psychology, attention is often described as the allocation of limited cognitive processing resources to a subset of information, thoughts, or tasks.

Field: Cognitive science; cognitive psychology

Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett (October 2, 1886, September 30, 1969) was a British psychologist , one of the pioneers of cognitive and experimental psychology in Great Britain.

Research he began continues among neuropsychologists and others studying cognitive processes and perception.